The functional organization of area V2, I: Specialization across stripes and layers

We used qualitative tests to assess the sensitivity of 1043 V2 neurons (predominantly multiunits) in anesthetised macaque monkeys to direction, length. orientation. and color of moving bar stimuli. Spectral sensitivity was additionally tested by noting ON or OFF responses to flashed stimuli of varied size and color. The location of 649 units was identified with respect to cycles of cytochrome oxidase stripes (thick-inter-thin-inter) and cortical layer. We used an initial 8-way stripe classification (4 stripes. and 4 "marginal" zones at interstripes boundaries), and a 9-way layer classification (5 standard layers (2-6), and 4 "marginal" Strata at layer boundaries). These classes were collapsed differently for particular analyses of functional distribution:. the main stripe-by-layer analysis was performed on 18 compartments (3 stripes X 6 layers), We found direction sensitivity only within thick stripes, orientation sensitivity mainly in thick stripes and interstripes. and spectral sensitivity mainly in thin stripes. Positive length summation was relatively more frequent in thick stripes and interstripes. and negative length/size summation in thin stripes. All these "majority" characteristics of stripes were most prominent in layers 3A and 3B. By contrast, "minority" characteristics (e.g. spectral sensitivity in thick stripes positive size summation in thin stripes) tended to be most frequent in the outer layers, that is, layers 2 and 6. In consequence, going by the four functions tested, the distinctions between stripes were maximal in layer 3, moderate in layer 2, and minimal in layer 6. Pooling all layers, there was some indication of asymmetry in the stripe cycle, in that thin stripe characteristics (spectral sensitivity, orientation insensitivity, and negative size summation) were also evident in the marginal zone and interstripe immediately lateral to a thin stripe, but less so medially. Within thin stripes, spectral and orientation selectivities were negatively correlated this was still more accentuated amongst the minority spectrally tuned cells of thick stripes. but absent from interstripes, where these two properties were randomly assorted. Directional and spectral sensitivities were each coupled to negative size summation. but not to each other. We conclude that these functional characteristics of stripes are consistent with segregated. specialized pathways ascending through their middle layers, whilst the outer layers. 1, 2, and 6, utilize feedback from higher areas to adopt a more integrative role

Non-binding relationship between visual features.

The answer as to how visual attributes processed in different brain loci at different speeds are bound together to give us our unitary experience of the visual world remains unknown. In this study we investigated whether bound representations arise, as commonly assumed, through physiological interactions between cells in the visual areas. In a focal attentional task in which correct responses from either bound or unbound representations were possible, participants discriminated the color or orientation of briefly presented single bars. On the assumption that representations of the two attributes are bound, the accuracy of reporting the color and orientation should co-vary. By contrast, if the attributes are not mandatorily bound, the accuracy of reporting the two attributes should be independent. The results of our psychophysical studies reported here supported the latter, non-binding, relationship between visual features, suggesting that binding does not necessarily occur even under focal attention. We propose a task-contingent binding mechanism, postulating that binding occurs at late, post-perceptual (PP), stages through the intervention of memory

The Rough Seas of Cortical Cartography

Efforts to parcellate the cortex into areas based on fine-scale anatomical signatures (e.g., cytoarchitectonics) date back to the early years of the last century. In the ensuing decades, rapidly growing knowledge of cortical connections encouraged neurobiologists to search for connectivity-based principles underlying the organization of the cerebral cortex. Using such an approach, Felleman and Van Essen presented, in their 1991 paper, a connectivity-based hierarchical principle dictating the relationship between cortical areas. This helped invigorate debates on the principles underlying cortical organization, including searches for alternative, or complementary, principles

“Multiplexing” Cells of the Visual Cortex and the Timing Enigma of the Binding Problem

In this opinion essay, I address the perennial binding problem, that is to say of how independently processed visual attributes such as form, colour and motion are brought together to give us a unified and holistic picture of the visual world. A solution to this central issue in neurobiology remains as elusive as ever. No one knows today how it is implemented. The issue is not a new one and, though discussed most commonly in the context of the visual brain, it is not unique to it either. Karl Lashley summarized it well years ago when he wrote that a critical problem for brain studies is to understand how “the specialized areas of the cerebral cortex interact to provide the integration evident in thought and behaviour” (Lashley, 1931)

The Bayesian-Laplacian Brain

We discuss here what we feel could be an improvement in future discussions of the brain acting as a Bayesian-Laplacian system, by distinguishing between two classes of priors on which the brain's inferential systems operate. In one category are biological priors (β priors) and in the other artefactual ones (α priors). We argue that β priors are inherited or acquired very rapidly after birth and are much more resistant to varying experiences than α priors which, being continuously acquired at various stages throughout post-natal life, are much more accommodating of, and hospitable to, new experiences. Consequently, the posteriors generated from the two sets of priors are likewise different, being more constrained (i.e., precise) for β than for α priors

Massively Parallel Video Networks

We introduce a class of causal video understanding models that aims to improve efficiency of video processing by maximising throughput, minimising latency, and reducing the number of clock cycles. Leveraging operation pipelining and multi-rate clocks, these models perform a minimal amount of computation (e.g. as few as four convolutional layers) for each frame per timestep to produce an output. The models are still very deep, with dozens of such operations being performed but in a pipelined fashion that enables depth-parallel computation. We illustrate the proposed principles by applying them to existing image architectures and analyse their behaviour on two video tasks: action recognition and human keypoint localisation. The results show that a significant degree of parallelism, and implicitly speedup, can be achieved with little loss in performance.Comment: Fixed typos in densenet model definition in appendi

The power of external influences to modify judgments of facial and moral beauty

Empirical evidence shows that the often-made positive correlation between human physical and moral beauty is tenuous. In this study, we aimed to learn whether facial and moral beauty can be psychophysically separated. Participants (n = 95) provided beauty and goodness (i.e., trustworthiness) ratings for pictures of faces, after which they were presented with a fictitious peer rating for the same face and asked to re-rate the face. We used the difference between the initial and final ratings to quantify the degree of resistance to external influence. We found that judgments of facial beauty were more resistant to external influence than judgments of facial “goodness”; in addition, there was significantly higher agreement within beauty ratings than within goodness ratings. These findings are discussed in light of our Bayesian–Laplacian classification of priors, from which we conclude that moral beauty relies more upon acquired “artifactual” priors and facial beauty more on inherited biological priors

Very early responses to colour stimuli detected in prestriate visual cortex by magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Our previous studies with the visual motion and form systems show that visual stimuli belonging to these categories trigger much earlier latency responses from the visual cortex than previously supposed and that the source of the earliest signals can be located in either the prestriate cortex or in both the striate (V1) and prestriate cortex. This is consistent with the known anatomical connections since, in addition to the classical retino-geniculo-striate cortex input to the prestriate visual areas, there are direct anatomical inputs from both the lateral geniculate nucleus and the pulvinar that reach the prestriate visual cortex without passing through striate cortex. In pursuing our studies, we thought it especially interesting to study another cardinal visual attribute, namely colour, to learn whether colour stimuli also provoke very early responses, at less than 50 ms from visual cortex. To address the question, we asked participants to view stimuli that changed in colour and used magneto-encephalography to detect very early responses (< 50 ms) in the occipital visual cortex. Our results show that coloured stimuli also provoke an early cortical response (M30), with an average peak time at 31.7 ms, thus bringing the colour system into line with the visual motion and form systems. We conclude that colour signals reach visual cortex, including prestriate visual cortex, earlier than previously supposed

Self-assembling nanoparticles containing dexamethasone as a novel therapy in allergic airways inflammation.

Nanocarriers can deliver a wide variety of drugs, target them to sites of interest, and protect them from degradation and inactivation by the body. They have the capacity to improve drug action and decrease undesirable systemic effects. We have previously developed a well-defined non-toxic PEG-dendritic block telodendrimer for successful delivery of chemotherapeutics agents and, in these studies, we apply this technology for therapeutic development in asthma. In these proof-of-concept experiments, we hypothesized that dexamethasone contained in self-assembling nanoparticles (Dex-NP) and delivered systemically would target the lung and decrease allergic lung inflammation and airways hyper-responsiveness to a greater degree than equivalent doses of dexamethasone (Dex) alone. We found that ovalbumin (Ova)-exposed mice treated with Dex-NP had significantly fewer total cells (2.78 ± 0.44 × 10(5) (n = 18) vs. 5.98 ± 1.3 × 10(5) (n = 13), P&lt;0.05) and eosinophils (1.09 ± 0.28 × 10(5) (n = 18) vs. 2.94 ± 0.6 × 10(5) (n = 12), p&lt;0.05) in the lung lavage than Ova-exposed mice alone. Also, lower levels of the inflammatory cytokines IL-4 (3.43 ± 1.2 (n = 11) vs. 8.56 ± 2.1 (n = 8) pg/ml, p&lt;0.05) and MCP-1 (13.1 ± 3.6 (n = 8) vs. 28.8 ± 8.7 (n = 10) pg/ml, p&lt;0.05) were found in lungs of the Dex-NP compared to control, and they were not lower in the Dex alone group. In addition, respiratory system resistance was lower in the Dex-NP compared to the other Ova-exposed groups suggesting a better therapeutic effect on airways hyperresponsiveness. Taken together, these findings from early-stage drug development studies suggest that the encapsulation and protection of anti-inflammatory agents such as corticosteroids in nanoparticle formulations can improve efficacy. Further development of novel drugs in nanoparticles is warranted to explore potential treatments for chronic inflammatory diseases such as asthma